competition refresher Published this articles page no 94 The initiation of the above approach marked the beginning of the annual series of Human Development Reports- the first Human Development Report of UNDP was published in 1990. In contrast to the GNP – the only other widely used indicator of a countrys overall development – the Human Development Index (HDI) reflects the average achievements along three dimensions of human development longevity educational attainment and command over resources needed for a decent living. However the HDI does not reflect the deprivation or the distributional aspects of development particularly inequality. Constructing composite indices to account for gender inequalities for the first time in 1995 took care of it. Second in 1997 a composite index was proposed and constructed for measuring the multidimensionality of poverty. Third these composite indices were disaggregated in terms of regions provinces gender races ethnic groups and the rural-urban divide1 . A gender-related development index (GDI) and a gender empowerment measure (GEM) emerged in 1995. The GDI measures achievements in the same dimensions and variables as the HDI but considers inequality in achievements between men and women. The GEM indicates whether women are able to actively take part in economic and political life. It focusses on participation measuring gender inequality in key areas of economic and political participation and decision-making2 . In 1997 a composite measure for multi-dimensional poverty the Human Poverty Index (HPI) was introduced. competition refreshe
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